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  UNIT II Processing and Graphical Representation of the data 1. Data Collection This is the first and most crucial step. It refers to the process of gathering information from various sources to answer a specific research question or test a hypothesis. Primary Data: Collected firsthand by the researcher specifically for the study (e.g., surveys, interviews, experiments, observations). Secondary Data: Data that has already been collected and published by someone else (e.g., government census reports, company annual reports, journals, online databases). 2. Data Editing Once data is collected, it is usually "raw" and contains errors. Editing is the process of detecting and correcting these errors to ensure accuracy, consistency, and completeness before analysis. Field Editing: Preliminary editing done at the time of data collection to catch obvious errors immediately (e.g., illegible handwriting, missing answer...

  Unit1: Measurement and Measurement of Data Introduction This unit introduces the conceptual foundations of educational measurement, exploring its scope, functions, and the critical need for objectivity in assessment. Central to this exploration is Stevens' taxonomy of Scales of Measurement—Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio—which dictates not only how we classify data but also which statistical operations are permissible. 1.     Concept of Measurement In the context of education and psychology, measurement is the process of assigning numbers or symbols to the attributes or characteristics of individuals (like intelligence, aptitude, achievement, or personality) according to specific rules. •         Key Point: We do not measure the person ; we measure the attributes of the person. •         The "Rule" Condition: The process must follow a consistent, logical system (e.g., scoring keys, rubr...