PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISM - Educational Perspective

PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISM

I. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES OF BUDDHISM

Origin

·        Founded by Gautama Buddha (563–483 BCE), born as Siddhartha in Lumbini (present-day Nepal).

·        Attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya at age 35.

·        Delivered the first sermon (Dharmachakra Pravartana) at Sarnath.

·        Passed away in Kushinagar (Mahāparinirvāṇa).

Historical Development

1.     Early Buddhism (6th–4th century BCE)

o   Sangha formation during Buddha's life.

o   Teachings preserved through oral traditions (Tripiṭaka).

2.     Council Periods

o   First Council (Rajagriha) – preservation of teachings.

o   Second Council (Vaishali) – split into Sthavira & Mahāsanghika.

o   Third Council (Pataliputra) – expansion under Ashoka.

o   Fourth Council (Kashmir & Sri Lanka) – formation of Abhidhamma literature.

3.     Spread of Buddhism

o   North India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, China, Japan, Tibet, Mongolia, Korea, Cambodia, Thailand.

II. CHIEF PROPONENTS OF BUDDHISM

1.     Gautama Buddha – Founder.

2.     Ashoka the Great – Patron; spread Buddhism across Asia.

3.     Nagarjuna (2nd century CE) – Founder of Madhyamaka (Middle Path) philosophy.

4.     Asanga & Vasubandhu – Yogācāra/Vijñānavāda masters.

5.     Bodhidharma – Spread Zen Buddhism to China & Japan.

6.     Atisha Dipankara – Reformist; contributed to Tibetan Buddhism.

III. PRINCIPLES OF BUDDHISM

1. The Four Noble Truths

1.     Dukkha – Life is suffering.

2.     Samudaya – Desire/craving causes suffering.

3.     Nirodha – Cessation of suffering is possible.

4.     Marga – The Eightfold Path is the way.

2. Noble Eightfold Path

Right View

Right View refers to understanding the Four Noble Truths correctly. When we truly grasp these truths, we recognize that the farther our perceptions drift from reality, the more we experience suffering.

Truth of Suffering: Human life is characterized by ongoing dissatisfaction.
Truth of the Origin of Suffering: This dissatisfaction arises due to specific causes and conditions.
Truth of Cessation: It is possible to reach a state in which suffering and dissatisfaction come to an end.
Truth of the Path: There exists a path that leads to this state of freedom.

To perceive the world through the Four Noble Truths is to hold the Right View, which guides us toward clarity and liberation. Rejecting or misunderstanding these truths keeps us trapped in confusion and continued suffering.

Right Resolve (intention)

Right Resolve means cultivating the intention of renunciation—a sincere wish to free ourselves from suffering. This resolve develops through reflecting on the preciousness of human life, the inevitability of death, the law of karma, and the inherent suffering within samsara. Recognizing that nothing in the samsaric world can offer lasting happiness inspires the desire to break free from the cycle altogether.

Right Speech

Right Speech involves refraining from meaningless chatter and avoiding speech that is false, harsh, divisive, or harmful. When we find ourselves in situations where others are speaking negatively about someone, we choose not to participate and express our preference for a more positive or neutral discussion. We can pause and ask:

“Is my intention wholesome?”
“Will my words harm or belittle someone?”
“Is what I’m saying true?”

Practicing Right Speech nurtures harmony and positive connections with others.

Right Action

Right Action goes beyond simply wishing to avoid harm—it requires that our bodily actions do not cause injury or suffering to any living being. Practicing Right Action includes refraining from killing, hurting others, stealing, or engaging in sexual misconduct.

Right Livelihood

Right Livelihood has two interpretations depending on one’s lifestyle. For monastics, it means living only on the offerings from others and taking no more than what is necessary. For lay practitioners, it means choosing a livelihood that does not harm, deceive, or exploit others. Whether employed or self-employed, we ensure our work is ethically sound. Even when unemployed, we must reflect on whether our means of survival are honest and harmless.

Right Effort

Right Effort is the commitment to cultivate wholesome qualities and to let go of unwholesome thoughts and behaviors. The Buddha taught that happiness arises from virtuous actions and suffering from non-virtuous ones. A key method for developing Right Effort is contemplating impermanence. Recognizing that life is uncertain helps us stop delaying beneficial actions. By reflecting on the advantages of liberation and the drawbacks of samsara, we cultivate enthusiasm and diligence in our spiritual practice.

Right Mindfulness

Right Mindfulness means maintaining a clear, attentive awareness of our body, feelings, mind, and mental states. It is the practice of observing our experiences exactly as they are—without judgement, distraction, or attachment. By staying fully present, we notice how thoughts and emotions arise and pass away, allowing us to respond wisely instead of reacting impulsively.

Practicing Right Mindfulness involves:

Being aware of the body—its posture, breath, and movements.
Observing feelings—whether pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral.
Noticing the state of the mind—whether it is calm, restless, distracted, or focused.
Recognizing mental patterns—such as desire, anger, confusion, or clarity.

Through mindfulness we see the impermanent and conditioned nature of all experiences. This understanding weakens ignorance and helps prevent unwholesome actions. Ultimately, Right Mindfulness stabilizes the mind and prepares it for deeper meditation.

Right Concentration

Right Concentration refers to developing a steady, unified, and deeply focused state of mind. It is most commonly associated with practicing meditation that leads to the four stages of deep absorption (jhanas). This form of concentration is not merely about suppressing thoughts; rather, it is about gathering the mind so fully that it becomes calm, clear, and free from distraction.

To cultivate Right Concentration, one trains the mind to:

Focus on a single wholesome object (such as the breath, loving-kindness, or a virtuous reflection).

Let go of mental disturbances like desire, ill-will, restlessness, and doubt.

Maintain clarity and steadiness without drifting into dullness or agitation.

As concentration deepens, the mind becomes peaceful and powerful, making it easier to see reality as it truly is. Right Concentration supports wisdom, strengthens insight, and helps bring about liberation from suffering.

3. Three Universal Truths

·        Impermanence (Anicca)

·        Non-self (Anatta)

·        Suffering (Dukkha)

4. Pancasīla (Five Precepts)

·        Non-violence, no stealing, no sexual misconduct, no false speech, no intoxication.

5. Dependent Origination (Pratītyasamutpāda)

·        All things arise due to causes and conditions.

6. Karma and Rebirth

·        Moral actions shape future experiences.

IV. CLASSIFICATION OF BUDDHISM

Buddhism split into major schools over time:

1. Theravāda Buddhism

2. Mahāyāna Buddhism

3. Vajrayāna (Tantric / Tibetan Buddhism)

Theravāda Buddhism (“Doctrine of the Elders”)

Origins & history
Theravāda claims continuity with the earliest Buddhist community and the Pāli Canon. It crystallized as a distinct tradition in South and Southeast Asia after early sectarian splits (roughly between 3rd century BCE and the early centuries CE). It became dominant in Sri Lanka and from there spread to Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia.

Canonical base
The Pāli Tipiṭaka (Three Baskets):

·        Vinaya Piṭaka — monastic rules;

·        Sutta Piṭaka — discourses attributed to the Buddha;

·        Abhidhamma Piṭaka — systematic psychological and philosophical analysis (unique emphasis in Theravāda).

Core doctrines

·        Four Noble Truths and Noble Eightfold Path: central diagnostic and prescriptive framework.

·        Anattā (no-self) and dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppāda): no permanent, independent self; phenomena arise dependently.

·        Karma & rebirth: moral causation across lifetimes.

·        Emphasis on historical Buddha’s teaching and conservative textual continuity.

Ideal / goal

·        Arahantship — the ideal is personal liberation (becoming an arahant who has extinguished greed, hatred and delusion). Compassion matters, but the ethical/emancipatory aim is more individually framed than the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva ideal.

Practice & methods

·        Sīla (morality), Samādhi (concentration), Paññā (wisdom) — balanced cultivation.

·        Meditation: two broad streams — samatha (calming, jhāna practice) and vipassanā (insight into impermanence, suffering, no-self). Modern global Vipassanā movements (e.g., S. N. Goenka lineage) draw from Theravāda practice.

·        Monastic life: strong emphasis on the Vinaya; monastic communities are primary educational centers.

·        Scriptural study & commentarial tradition: e.g., Buddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga is central for Theravāda exegetical pedagogy.

Institutional & educational role

·        Historical monastic universities (in later periods) and modern monastic colleges; strong lay–monk relationship where laity support monasteries and receive ethical instruction.

Contemporary presence

·        Majority religion in several Southeast Asian countries; modern revival and global meditation influence.

Mahāyāna Buddhism (“Great Vehicle”)

Origins & history
Mahāyāna emerges in the early centuries CE within Indian Buddhism as a movement emphasizing universal liberation and new scriptures (the Mahāyāna sūtras). It spread to Central and East Asia and evolved into many schools and institutions.

Canonical & textual landscape

·        Mahāyāna Sutras (not found in Pāli Canon): e.g., Prajñāpāramitā literature (Heart, Diamond Sutras), Lotus Sūtra, Avataṃsaka, Pure Land sutras, Vimalakirti Nirdesa, etc.

·        Treatises & commentaries by major Indian commentators (Nagarjuna, Asaṅga, Vasubandhu, Nāgārjuna’s Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, Yogācāra texts, etc.).

·        There is no single canon equivalent to Pāli Tipiṭaka; instead different canons (Chinese, Tibetan) preserve a broad Mahāyāna corpus.

Core doctrines

·        Bodhisattva ideal: primary ethical-spiritual goal becomes awakening for the sake of all beings — postponing final Nirvāṇa to assist others.

·        Two major philosophical tendencies:

o   Madhyamaka (Nāgārjuna) — doctrine of śūnyatā (emptiness): all phenomena lack intrinsic existence; emptiness itself is not a metaphysical absolute but a middle way avoiding eternalism and nihilism.

o   Yogācāra (Asaṅga, Vasubandhu) — often called “mind-only” (vijñapti-mātra) — analysis of consciousness and how experience is constructed; emphasizes transformative cognition.

·        Upāya (skillful means): teachings are adapted to the capacities of learners; hence the proliferation of sutras and practices.

Ideal / goal

·        Bodhisattva → full buddhahood (not merely personal liberation). Compassion (karuṇā) and wisdom (prajñā) are balanced virtues.

Practice & methods

·        Ethical conduct & compassion practices: paramitas (perfections) such as generosity, ethical discipline, patience, diligence, meditation, and wisdom.

·        Devotional and liturgical practices: chanting sutras, invoking Buddhas and Bodhisattvas (e.g., Avalokiteśvara/Guanyin).

·        Varied meditative techniques: śamatha/vipaśyanā, analytical meditation (as in Tibetan and East Asian lineages), visualization (in some Mahāyāna schools), and chanting/recollection (nembutsu in Pure Land).

·        Lay integration: Mahāyāna frequently developed robust lay practices (Pure Land is a prominent accessible devotion-based path).

Monastic & institutional forms

·        Large monastic complexes in China, Korea, Japan; also temple networks integrated with local societies. Education included sutra study, commentarial exegesis, meditation halls, and ritual training.

Key figures

·        Nāgārjuna (Madhyamaka) and Asaṅga/Vasubandhu (Yogācāra) are pivotal Indian philosophers. Later East Asian teachers (e.g., Zhiyi, Dōgen, Huineng) adapted Mahāyāna thought into Asian cultural forms.

Contemporary presence

·        Dominant in East Asia (China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Taiwan); modern movements include Pure Land, Zen/Chan, Tiantai/Tendai, Nichiren, etc. Mahāyāna has diverse doctrinal and practical expressions.

Vajrayāna (Tantric / Tibetan Buddhism)

Origins & historical development
Vajrayāna arises out of Mahāyāna currents and tantric developments in India (roughly 6th–8th centuries CE) and later flourishes in Tibet, Bhutan, and Mongolia. It is often described as the “vehicle” that employs esoteric means to accelerate awakening.

Name & metaphor

·        Vajra = “diamond” or “thunderbolt” — symbolizes indestructible clarity and skillful power. The term signals an up-tempo, potent method for realization.

Textual base

·        Tantras (Vajrayāna literature) — ritual manuals, visualization instructions, and esoteric teachings, often presented as secret transmissions that require initiation (abhiṣeka).

·        Also relies upon Mahāyāna sutras and Indian Buddhist treatises.

Core doctrines & metaphors

·        Affirms Mahāyāna’s emptiness and bodhicitta (awakening mind) while adding a dense symbolic psychology:

o   Transformation of experience: ordinary mental and emotional energies are transformed into the path and result (e.g., desire becomes the energy of realization rather than an obstacle).

o   Union of bliss and emptiness: certain tantric meditations aim to realize non-dual awareness characterized as blissful clarity.

o   Deity Yoga: practitioner visualizes themselves as a Buddha-deity (yidam) to experientially adopt enlightened qualities.

·        Role of the guru: the teacher (lama, guru) is central — initiations transmit empowerment and make tantra practice legitimate.

Practices & methods

·        Initiation (Abhiṣeka/empowerment): access to specific tantric practices is granted through ritual transmission.

·        Mantra recitation: repetition of sacred syllables (e.g., “Om Mani Padme Hum” for Avalokiteśvara).

·        Mandalas: sacred cosmograms used for visualization and ritual focus.

·        Deity (yidam) visualization & identification: elaborate visualizations and sādhanas wherein the practitioner trains to perceive themselves as the deity, dissolving ordinary self-identity.

·        Completion stage practices: advanced yogic techniques (e.g., subtle body practices, tummo, completion stage) in some lineages aim at direct experiential realization.

·        Rituals & protective practices: complex liturgies, ritual arts, and community rites.

Ethical & philosophical context

·        Vajrayāna retains the Mahāyāna commitments to bodhicitta and emptiness but embeds ethics within tantric vows (samaya) and a strong emphasis on right relationship with the guru and correct conduct of practices.

Monastic & social forms

·        Tibetan Buddhist institutions combined monastic scholarship, ritual, and tantric practice. Monasteries (e.g., Ganden, Sera, Drepung; later large Gelug establishments) served as centers of philosophical debate, ritual training, and public life.

Goal / ideal

·        Buddhahood in one lifetime: Vajrayāna often emphasizes methods that can realize buddhahood more rapidly than gradual methods — sometimes called the “swift path.” The metaphysical claim is not that enlightenment is instantaneous without practice, but that tantric methods can effect profound transformation within a single lifetime under proper conditions.

Key figures & lineages

·        Indian tantric masters (e.g., Tilopa, Naropa), Tibetan translators and teachers (Padmasambhava, Atisha), and later lineage holders (Tsongkhapa for Gelug, Milarepa for Kagyu, Longchenpa for Nyingma, etc.). The Dalai Lamas are prominent Gelug leaders with socio-political roles historically.

Contemporary presence

·        Strong in Tibet (Tibetan Autonomous Region and Tibetan plateau), Bhutan, Mongolia, parts of Nepal; Tibetan diaspora and global interest in Tibetan Buddhism’s meditation and cultural teachings have internationalized Vajrayāna influence.

V. COMPARISON OF THE THREE MAJOR SCHOOLS

Feature	Theravāda	Mahāyāna	Vajrayāna
Ideal	Arhat	Bodhisattva	Thunderbolt / Tantric Siddha
Canon	Pali Tripiṭaka	Sanskrit Sūtras	Tantras + Mahayana texts
View of Buddha	Human teacher	Cosmic Buddha	Mystical, esoteric
Practices	Meditation, monastic life	Compassion, devotion	Rituals, mantras, yoga
Spread	SE Asia	East Asia	Tibet, Mongolia

           Comparative summary (key contrasts)

·        Scriptural base:

o   Theravāda → Pāli Tipiṭaka (early canon).

o   Mahāyāna → broad body of Mahāyāna sutras + commentaries.

o   Vajrayāna → Mahāyāna sutras + tantric tantras and sādhanas.

·        Religious ideal:

o   Theravāda → Arahant (personal liberation).

o   Mahāyāna → Bodhisattva (universal compassion, striving for Buddhahood).

o   Vajrayāna → Bodhisattva/Buddhahood via tantric means (emphasis on rapid transformation).

·        Method emphasis:

o   Theravāda → ethical discipline + insight meditation (vipassanā) and calm abiding (samatha).

o   Mahāyāna → cultivation of compassion + wisdom, variety of meditative, devotional, and philosophical practices.

o   Vajrayāna → esoteric rituals, guru devotion, mantra/mandala/deity visualization, subtle-body yogas.

·        Attitude to worldly life & desire:

o   Theravāda → renunciation and restraint as paths to clarity.

o   Mahāyāna → compassionate engagement with the world; some traditions emphasize returning to help beings.

o   Vajrayāna → skillful transformation of worldly energies (including desire) into path medicine when guided properly.

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISM

Core Educational Ideas

1.     Education as liberation from ignorance (Avidyā).

2.     Cultivation of morality (Śīla), concentration (Samādhi), wisdom (Prajñā).

3.     Aim: formation of ideal human character – compassionate, mindful, and disciplined.

4.     Emphasis on experiential learning, meditation, and self-realisation.

Salient Features:

  1. Abilities of the Student:

In the Buddhist education, every class in the society, except the Chandals, had the right to receive education. It was denied only to the ill, the handicapped, the dishonored and those punished for crimes. Education began at the age of 8. Till the age of 12, the student remained in a state of shramana(means "one who labours, toils, or exerts themselves (for some higher or religious purpose)). After attaining the age of 20, he was qualified to become a monk. Education was imparted through the medium of Pali.

2.   Pababja Ritual:

Before a student could enter a monastery for receiving education, he had to perform Pababja ritual, in which, according to the “Vinaypataka” the student had his head shaved of all hair, dressed himself in yellow clothes, placed his forehead at the feet of the monks living in the monastery, and then sat cross-legged on the floor to repeat the following words thrice:

I go into the shelter of Buddha

 I seek the shelter of Dharma

I enter the shelter of Sangh.

He was then ordained to obey the rules, which included abstaining from theft, killing of any living being, impure conduct, partaking of food at prohibited times, use of intoxicating things, use of cosmetics, taking thins without being offered, accepting objects of Gold and silver in alms, watching dances or listening to music etc. After the performing of this ritual, the student was called a SHRAMAN or SAMNER.

3. Upsampada Ritual:

Buddhist rite of higher ordination, by which a novice becomes a monk, or bhikhu. Ordination is not necessarily permanent and, in some countries, may be repeated in a monk’s lifetime. A candidate for ordination must be at least 20 years old, have the permission of his parents, be exempt from military service, be free from debt and from contagious disease, and have received at least some elementary instruction in Buddhism.

The ceremony may be performed on any day determined to be auspicious, except during vassa (varsha), the rainy season retreat. It takes place within the sanctuary in the presence of monks already ordained. The pabbajja, or ceremony of lower ordination to the rank of novice, is repeated even if the candidate has undergone it previously. He dons the garments of a monk and repeats the Triratna (“Threefold Refuge”) of the Buddha, the dharma (teaching), and the sangha (community of believers) and the 10 precepts (basic rules of ethical conduct for a monk); the candidate then stands before the assembly in the company of his sponsoring tutors and is questioned on his fitness to be received into the order. The assembly is questioned three times, and, if there is no objection to his ordination, the candidate is accepted into the priesthood. Female novices are ordained nuns (Pali: bhikkhunis) in a similar rite.

Duration of Education:

The total period of education was 22 years, composed of 12 years as Pababja and 10 years as Upsampada.

 Student Teacher relationship:

Students were required to serve their teachers, beg for alms, eat food thrice a day, wear three items of clothing, bath them selves with pure water and live a disciplined life. A teacher’s relations with new students was akin to the father son or paternal relationship. They were linked to each other in mutual respect, faith and love. During this period, equality was the foundation of this relationship in which both students and teachers fulfilled their respective obligations and duties.

 Women's Education:

In Buddhist period, women occupied a position inferior to men. Initially, they were prohibited from joining a Sanhga or congregation. Later on, they were granted admission to such congregations, and it was then women education progressed. Separate monasteries were established for women. Among the women who attained the fame were Sheet Bhattarika, Vijahahka, Praabhudevi etc. A lady named Sanghmitra went to Ceylon to propagate Buddhist faith. 

  TWO-TIER SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

Components	Monastic Education (Higher Tier)	Lay Education (Lower Tier)
Learners	Monks & nuns	Normal people
Nature	Formal, structured, residential	Informal, moral, community-based
Goal	Enlightenment + scholarship	Ethical life + social well-being
Curriculum	Scriptures, philosophy, meditation	Morality, rituals, stories
Methods	Debate, meditation, discipline	Preaching, storytelling
Institutions	Viharas, Mahaviharas	Villages, temples, community halls

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TWO-TIER SYSTEM

     Strengthened Buddhist scholarship (monastic tier).

     Spread Buddhist values widely (lay tier).

     Created a peaceful, ethical society.

     Helped monasteries evolve into major universities (Nalanda).

     Enabled Buddhist influence across Asia.

AIMS OF EDUCATION IN BUDDHISM

1.     Moral development (Right conduct).

2.     Intellectual development (Right understanding).

3.     Emotional balance & mindfulness.

4.     Liberation (Nirvāṇa) – ultimate aim.

5.     Social welfare – peace, non-violence, equality.

6.     Spiritual enlightenment through wisdom.

METHODS OF TEACHING IN BUDDHISM

     Socratic-style dialogue (Question–answer).

     Storytelling, Jātaka tales.

     Lecture (Desanā) by teacher or monk.

     Meditation practices – Vipassanā, Samatha.

     Observation and imitation of teacher's life.

     Monastic discipline – learning by doing.

     Group discussions in Sangha.

CURRICULUM IN BUDDHIST EDUCATION

Monastic Curriculum Included:

·        Tripiṭaka study – Sutta, Vinaya, Abhidhamma.

·        Ethics and moral training.

·        Meditation and yoga.

·        Language learning – Pali, Sanskrit.

·        Logic and philosophy.

·        Arts & crafts (painting, sculpture).

·        Medicine & astrology in Tibetan Buddhism.

Curriculum Features

·        Practical, moral, spiritual.

·        Individualised learning.

·        Emphasis on memory, discipline, and mindfulness.

DISCIPLINE IN BUDDHIST EDUCATION

1.     Based on self-discipline and awareness.

2.     Rules from Vinaya Pitaka.

3.     Emphasis on:

o   Simplicity

o   Non-violence

o   Respect

o   Controlled speech

4.     Discipline through meditation and structured daily routine.

ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN BUDDHISM

1.     Acts as:

o   Guide

o   Moral exemplar

o   Spiritual friend (Kalyāṇa Mitra)

2.     Qualities: Compassion, patience, selflessness.

3.     Duties:

o   Impart Dhamma.

o   Provide personalised guidance.

o   Evaluate spiritual progress.

4.     Teacher leads by example, not authority.

FUNCTIONING & PROCESS OF BUDDHIST MONASTERY

1. Administration

·        Headed by Abbot (Mahāthera / Lama).

·        Monks and novices follow Vinaya rules.

2. Daily Routine

·        Early morning meditation.

·        Alms round.

·        Study of scriptures.

·        Community work.

·        Evening chanting.

3. Monastic Processes

·        Ordination (Upasampadā) of monks.

·        Training in meditation, ethics, scriptural mastery.

·        Service to community (teaching, healing, counselling).

 4. Support System

·        Monasteries supported by lay devotees through donations.

CURRENT STATUS OF BUDDHISM

Followers

·        Estimated 520–550 million Buddhists worldwide.

Major Regions

·        Theravāda: Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos

·        Mahayāna: China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam

·        Vajrayāna: Tibet, Bhutan, Mongolia, parts of Nepal & India

Modern Revival

·        Vipassana movement (S.N. Goenka).

·        Neo-Buddhism in India (B.R. Ambedkar’s Navayana).

·        Growing interest in mindfulness and meditation globally.

COUNTRIES THAT FOLLOW BUDDHISM

Predominantly Buddhist Countries

     Thailand

     Cambodia

     Myanmar

     Sri Lanka

     Bhutan

     Mongolia

     Laos

Large Buddhist Populations

     China

     Japan

     South Korea

     Vietnam

     Nepal

     Taiwan

Minority Presence

·        India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Tibet region, USA, Europe, Australia.

Reference Books for Education & Buddhism

Buddhist Educational Philosophy

1.     T.W. Rhys Davids — Buddhist India (Education System)

2.     D. N. Premasiri — The Buddhist Concept of Education

3.     M. Hiriyanna — Outlines of Indian Philosophy

4.     Ananda Guruge — The Buddha’s Educational Ideals

5.     S. Radhakrishnan — Indian Philosophy (Volume 1)

General Buddhist History & Philosophy

Highly Recommended (UGC-NET Standard)

1.     Edward Conze — A Short History of Buddhism

2.     Damien Keown — Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction

3.     John Strong — Buddhism: An Introduction

4.     Ninian Smart — The World’s Religions

5.     Richard Gombrich — Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History

Theravāda (Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar)

1.     Walpola Rahula — What the Buddha Taught

2.     Buddhaghosa — Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification)

3.     Bhikkhu Bodhi — Translations of Nikāyas

4.     Steven Collins — Selfless Persons

Mahāyāna

1.     Paul Williams — Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations

2.     David Kalupahana — The Philosophy of the Middle Way (Madhyamaka)

3.     Dan Lusthaus — Buddhist Phenomenology (Yogācāra)

4.     D. T. Suzuki — Essays in Zen Buddhism

5.     Masao Abe — Zen and Western Thought

Vajrayāna (Tibetan Buddhism)

1.     Robert Thurman — Inner Revolution

2.     Lama Anagarika Govinda — Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism

3.     John Powers — Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism

4.     Geoffrey Samuel — Civilized Shamans

5.     Dalai Lama & Jeffrey Hopkins — Tantric Path of Purification

   Websites for Research & Academic Use

·        Oxford Bibliographies – Buddhism

https://oxfordbibliographies.com

·        Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP)
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/buddhism

·        Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (IEP)
https://iep.utm.edu/buddhism